Awesome Dudes

John Rabe (November 23, 1882 – January 5, 1950) was a German businessman who used his Nazi party membership for humanitarian purposes. His Nanjing Safety Zone sheltered some 200,000 Chinese people from slaughter during the Nanjing Massacre.

Born in Hamburg, Germany, Rabe pursued a career in business and went to Africa for several years. In 1908 he left for China, and between 1910 and 1938, he worked for the Siemens AG China Corporation in Shenyang (Mukden), Beijing (Peiping), Tianjin (Tientsin), Shanghai and later Nanjing (Nanking).

The Nanjing Massacre

On November 22, 1937, as the Japanese Army advanced on Nanjing, Rabe, along with other foreign nationals, organized the International Committee and drew up the Nanjing Safety Zone to provide Chinese refugees with food and shelter upon the impending Japanese slaughter. He explained his reasons thus: “..there is a question of morality here.. I cannot bring myself for now to betray the trust these people have put in me, and it is touching to see how they believe in me.” The zones were located in all of the foreign embassies and at Nanjing University. Rabe also opened up his properties to help 650 more refugees. The following massacre would kill hundreds of thousands of people, while Rabe and his zone administrators tried frantically to stop the atrocities. His attempts to appeal to the Japanese by using his Nazi membership credentials only delayed them; but that delay allowed hundreds of refugees to escape. In the documentary film Nanking it was said he was responsible for saving 250,000 Chinese civilians.

Return to Germany

On February 28, 1938 Rabe left Nanjing, travelling to Shanghai and then back to Germany. He showed films and photographs of Japanese atrocities in lecture presentations in Berlin and wrote to Hitler to use his influence to persuade the Japanese to stop any more inhumane violence. Instead, Rabe was detained and interrogated by the Gestapo and his letter to Hitler never sent. Due to the intervention of Siemens AG, he was released. He was allowed to keep evidence of the massacre, excluding the film, but was not allowed to lecture or write on the subject. Rabe would continue working for Siemens, which posted him briefly to the safety of Afghanistan. Until 1945 Rabe worked in the Berlin headquarters of the company.

After the war, Rabe was denounced for his Nazi Party membership and arrested by the Russians first and then by the British. However, investigations exonerated him of any wrongdoing. He was formally declared “de-Nazified” by the Allies in June 1946 but thereafter lived in relative poverty. His family was also starving at one point in time when he (Rabe) was partly supported by the monthly food and money parcels sent by the Chinese government for his actions during the Nanjing Massacre.

Death and Legacy

On 5 January 1950, Rabe died of a stroke. In 1997 his tombstone was moved from Berlin to Nanjing where it received a place of honour at the massacre memorial site.

In 2005 Rabe’s former residence in Nanjing was renovated and now accommodates the “”John Rabe and International Safety Zone Memorial Hall”, which opened in 2006. The Austrian Service Abroad has been invited to send a Peace Servant.

War Diaries

His war-time diaries are published in English as The Good German of Nanjing (UK title) or The Good Man of Nanking (US title) (original German title: Der gute Deutsche von Nanjing).

Film

A Sino-German movie about his life is planned and the shooting in Shanghai has started in fall of 2007 starring Ulrich Tukur, Daniel Brühl and Steve Buscemi and directed by Florian Gallenberger.

Cast:

Ulrich Tukur - John Rabe

Daniel Brühl - Dr. Georg Rosen

Steve Buscemi- Dr. Robert Wilson

Jingchu Zhang - Langshu

Anne Consigny - Valérie Dupres

Dagmar Manzel - Dora Rabe

Gottfried John - Trautmann

Teruyuki Kagawa - Prince Asaka

Yu Fang – Han

Mathias Herrmann- Jochen Fließ

Akira Emoto - General Matsui

Christian Rodska- Dr. Lewis Smythe

Christoph Hagen Dittmann – Christian Kröger

Togo Igawa - Ambassador Fukuda

Shaun Lawton- Rev. Maggee

Arata – Major Ose

Tetta Sugimoto - Kesago Nakajima

Hans-Eckart Eckhardt - German Embassy Clerk

Hans Joachim Heist - Scheel

Ming Li – Chang

Yuan Wenkang - Gu

Philipp Keller - Sailor

References

Sources

• Erwin Wickert (editor). (1998). The Good German of Nanjing: The Diaries of John Rabe, Knopf. ISBN 0-375-40211-X
• Original German: (1997). John Rabe. Der gute Deutsche von Nanjing. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart. ISBN 3-421-05098-8
• john-rabe.com
• Museum Recalls Hero of ‘The Rape of Nanjing’ Fall 2006 NPR program about Rabe
• John Rabe Communication Centre Heidelberg

Miyamoto Musashi (宮本 武蔵, Miyamoto Musashi^?) (c. 1584–June 13 (Japanese calendar: May 19), 1645), also known as Shinmen Takezō, Miyamoto Bennosuke, or by his Buddhist name Niten Dōraku^[1], was a Japanese swordsman famed for his duels and distinctive style. Musashi, as he is often simply known, became legendary through his outstanding swordsmanship in numerous duels, even from a very young age. He is the founder of the Hyōhō Niten Ichi-ryū or Niten-ryū style of swordsmanship and the author of The Book of Five Rings (五輪書, Go Rin No Sho^?), a book on strategy, tactics, and philosophy that is still studied today.

The details of Miyamoto Musashi’s early life are difficult to verify. Musashi himself simply states in Gorin no Sho that he was born in Harima Province.^[2] Niten Ki (an early biography of Musashi) supports the theory that Musashi was born in 1584: “[He] was born in Banshū, in Tenshō 12 [1584], the Year of the Monkey.”^[3] The historian Kamiko Tadashi, commenting on Musashi’s text, notes: “[...]Munisai was Musashi’s father…he lived in Miyamoto village, in the Yoshino district [of Mimasaka Province]. Musashi was most probably born here.”^[4] His childhood name was Bennosuke 弁之助.

Musashi gives his full name and title in Gorin no Sho as “Shinmen Musashi no Kami Fujiwara no Genshin.”^[5] His father, Shinmen Munisai 新免無二斎, was an accomplished martial artist and master of the sword and jutte.^[6] Munisai, in turn, was the son of Hirata Shōgen 平田将監, a vassal of Shinmen Iga no Kami, the lord of Takeyama Castle, in the Yoshino district of Mimasaka Province.^[7] Hirata was relied upon by Lord Shinmen, and so was allowed to use the Shinmen name. As for “Musashi,” Musashi no Kami was a court title, making him the nominal governor of Musashi province. “Fujiwara” was the lineage from which Musashi claimed nominal descent.

Munisai and Musashi’s birth date

In his youth, Munisai won 2 out of 3 bouts against a master swordsman named Yoshioka in front of the then-shogun Ashikaga Yoshiaki; the shogun granted him the title “Best in Japan”. Munisai also taught in a local dojo his family jitte techniques. Mysteriously, his tomb says he died in 1580, which obviously conflicts with the accepted birth date of 1584 for Musashi. Further muddying the waters, according to the family genealogy of the extant Miyamoto family, Musashi was born in 1582. Kenji Tokitsu has suggested that the accepted birth date of 1584 for Musashi is wrong, as it is primarily based on a literal reading of the introduction to the Go Rin No Sho where Musashi states that the years of his life “add up to 60″ (yielding the twelfth year of the Tensho era, or 1584, when working backwards from the well-documented date of composition), when it should be taken in a more literary and imprecise sense, indicating not a specific age but merely that Musashi was in his sixties when he wrote it.

Because of the uncertainty centering around Munisai (when he died, whether he was truly Musashi’s father, etc.), Musashi’s mother is known with even less confidence. Here are a few possibilities:

1. Munisai’s tomb was correct. He died in 1580, leaving two daughters; his wife adopted a recently born child, from the Akamatsu clan, intended to succeed Munisai at his jitte school. Omasa, Munisai’s widow, was not truly Musashi’s mother.
2. The tomb was wrong. Munisai lived a good deal longer, later than 1590 possibly. Musashi, then, was born to Munisai’s first wife, Yoshiko (daughter to Bessho Shigeharu, who formerly controlled Hirafuku village until he lost a battle in 1578 to Yamanaka Shikanosuke). Munisai divorced her after Musashi’s birth, whereupon she decamped for her father’s house, leaving Musashi with Munisai. Musashi grew up treating Munisai’s second wife, Omasa (daughter to Lord Shinmen) as his mother. This second scenario is laid out in an entry to the Tasumi family’s genealogy:

   “The daughter of Bessho Shigeharu first married Hirata Muni and was divorced from him a few years later. After that she married Tasumi Masahisa. The second wife of Tasumi Masahisa was the mother of Miyamoto Musashi. Musashi’s childhood name was Hirata Den. He later became famous on account of his swordsmanship. During his childhood, he went to Hirafuku to find his real mother. He moved in with the Tasumi family.”^[8]

3. A variant of this second theory is based on the fact that the tombstone states that Omasa gave birth to Musashi on 4 March 1584, and died of it. Munisai then remarried to Yoshiko. They divorced, as in the second theory, but Yoshiko took Musashi with her, and married Tasumi Masahisa.
4. Kenji Tokitsu prefers to assume a birth date of 1581, which avoids the necessity of assuming the tombstone to be erroneous (although this poses the problem of from whom then Musashi received the transmission of the family martial art).

Upbringing

Regardless of the truth about Musashi’s ancestry, when Musashi was seven years old, the boy was raised by his uncle, Dorinbo (or Dorin), in Shoreian temple, three kilometers (~1.8 mi.) from Hirafuku. Both Dorin and Musashi’s uncle by marriage – Tasumi – educated him in Buddhism and basic skills such as writing and reading. This education is possibly the basis for Yoshikawa Eiji’s fictional education of Musashi by the historical Zen monk Takuan. He was apparently trained by Munisai in the sword, and in the family art of the jitte. This training did not last for a very long time, as in 1589, Munisai was ordered by Shinmen Sokan to kill Munisai’s student, Honiden Gekinosuke. The Honiden family was displeased, and so Munisai was forced to move four kilometers (~2.5 mi.) away to the village of Kawakami.

In 1592, Munisai died, although Tokitsu believes that the person who died at this time was really Hirata Takehito.

Musashi contracted eczema in his infancy, and this adversely affected his appearance.^{[citation needed]} Another story claims that he never took a bath because he did not want to be surprised unarmed. While the former claim may or may not have some basis in reality, the latter seems improbable.^[9] An unwashed member of the warrior caste would not have been received as a guest by such famous houses as Honda, Ogasawara and Hosokawa. These and many other details are likely embellishments that were added to his legend, or misinterpretations of literature describing him.

His father’s fate is uncertain, but it is thought that he died at the hands of one of Musashi’s later adversaries, who was punished or even killed for treating Musashi’s father badly. However, there are no exact details of Musashi’s life, since Musashi’s only writings are those related to strategy and technique.

Training in swordsmanship

The name “Musashi” was thought to be taken from the name of a warrior monk named Musashibō Benkei who served under Minamoto no Yoshitsune, but this is unconfirmed. In any case, the name seems fitting, particularly when comparing the level of mastery of weaponry – both being able to masterfully use nine or more weapons.

It’s said that he may have studied at the Yoshioka ryu school, which was also said to be a school Musashi defeated single-handedly during his later years, although this is uncertain. Ultimately the name was taken from his own original kanji, 武蔵, which can be read as Takezo or as Musashi, as stated in Eiji Yoshikawa’s book Musashi.

First duel

“I have trained in the way of strategy since my youth, and at the age of thirteen I fought a duel for the first time. My opponent was called Arima Kihei, a sword adept of the Shinto ryu, and I defeated him. At the age of sixteen I defeated a powerful adept by the name of Akiyama, who came from the province of Tajima. At the age of twenty-one I went up to Kyoto and fought duels with several adepts of the sword from famous schools, but I never lost.”

—Miyamoto Musashi, Go Rin No Sho

According to the introduction of The Book of Five Rings, Musashi states that his first successful duel was at the age of thirteen, against a samurai named Arima Kihei who fought using the Kashima Shintō-ryū style, founded by Tsukahara Bokuden (b. 1489, d. 1571). The main source of the duel is the Hyoho senshi denki (”Anecdotes about the Deceased Master”). Summarized, its account goes as follows:

In 1596, Musashi was 13, and Arima Kihei, who was traveling to hone his art, posted a public challenge in Hirafuku-mura. Musashi wrote his name on the challenge. A messenger came to Dorin’s temple, where Musashi was staying, to inform Musashi that his duel had been accepted by Kihei. Dorin, Musashi’s uncle, was shocked by this, and tried to beg off the duel in Musashi’s name, based on his nephew’s age. Kihei was adamant that the only way his honor could be cleared was if Musashi apologized to him when the duel was scheduled. So when the time set for the duel arrived, Dorin began apologizing for Musashi, who merely charged at Kihei with a six-foot quarterstaff, shouting a challenge to Kihei. Kihei attacked with a wakizashi, but Musashi threw Kihei on the floor, and while Kihei tried to get up, Musashi struck Arima between the eyes and then beat him to death. Arima was said to have been arrogant, overly eager to fight, and not a terribly talented swordsman.

—William Scott Wilson, The Lone Samurai^[10]

The duel is odd for a number of reasons, not least of which is why Musashi was permitted to duel Arima, whether the apology was a ruse, and why Arima was there in the first place.

Travels and duels

In 1599, three years later, Musashi left his village, apparently at the age of 15 (according to the Tosakushi, “The Registry of the Sakushu Region”, although the Tanji Hokin Hikki says he was 16 years old in 1599).^[8] His family possessions such as furniture, weapons, genealogy, and other records were left with his sister and her husband, one Hirao Yoemon.

He spent his time traveling and engaging in duels, such as with an adept called Akiyama from the Tajima province.

In 1600, a war began between the Toyotomi and Tokugawa clans. Musashi apparently fought on the side of the Toyotomi’s “Army of the West”, as the Shinmen clan (to whom his family owed allegiance) had allied with them. Specifically, he participated in the attempt to take Fushimi castle by assault in July 1600, in the defense of the besieged Gifu Castle in August of the same year, and finally in the famed Battle of Sekigahara. Some doubt has been cast on this final battle, as the Hyoho senshi denki has Musashi saying he is “no lord’s vassal” and refusing to fight with his father (in Lord Ukita’s battalion) in the battle. Omitting the Battle of Sekigahara from the list of Musashi’s battles would seem to contradict the Go Rin No Sho’s statement that Musashi fought in six battles, however.

Regardless, as Toyotomi’s side lost, it has been suggested that Musashi fled as well, and spent some time training on Mount Hiko.

After the Battle of Sekigahara, Musashi disappears from the records; the next mention of him has him arriving in Kyoto at the age of 20 (or 21), where he famously began a series of duels against the Yoshioka School.

Musashi’s father had fought against an adept of the Yoshioka School in his youth, receiving the title of “Best In Japan” as mentioned earlier. The Yoshioka School (descended from either the Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū or the Kyo-hachi-ryū) was the foremost of the eight major schools of martial arts in Kyoto, the “Kyo-ryū” / “Schools of Kyoto”. Legend has it that these eight schools were founded by eight monks taught by a legendary martial artist resident on the sacred mountain Kurama. At some point the Yoshioka family also began to make a name for itself not merely in the art of the sword but also in the textile business and for a dye peculiar to them. They gave up teaching swordsmanship in 1614 when they were in the Army of the West against Tokugawa Ieyasu, in the Battle of Osaka, which they lost. But in 1604, when Musashi began duelling them, they were still preeminent. There are various accounts of the duels—the Yoshioka family documents claim that there was only one, against Yoshioka Kenpō, which Musashi lost.

Musashi challenged Yoshioka Seijūrō, master of the Yoshioka School, to a duel. Seijūrō accepted, and they agreed to a duel outside Rendaiji in Rakuhoku, in the northern part of Kyoto on 8 March 1604. Musashi arrived late, greatly irritating Seijūrō. They faced off, and Musashi struck a single blow, per their agreement. This blow struck Seijūrō on the left shoulder, knocking him out, and crippling his left arm. He apparently passed on the headship of the school to his equally accomplished brother, Yoshioka Denshichirō, who promptly challenged Musashi for revenge. The duel variously took place in Kyoto outside a temple, Sanjūsangen-dō. Denshichirō wielded a staff reinforced with steel rings (or possibly with a ball-and-chain attached), while Musashi arrived late a second time. Musashi disarmed Denshichirō and defeated him. This second victory outraged the Yoshioka clan, whose head was now the 12-year old Yoshioka Matashichiro. They assembled a force of archers, musketeers and swordsmen, and challenged Musashi to a duel outside Kyoto, near Ichijoji Temple. Musashi broke his previous habit of arriving late, and came to the temple hours early. Hidden, Musashi assaulted the force, killing Matashichiro, and escaping while being attacked by dozens of their supporters. With the death of Matashichiro, the branch of the Yoshioka School was destroyed.

After Musashi left Kyoto, some sources recount that he travelled to Hozoin in Nara, to duel with and learn from the monks there, widely known as experts with lance weapons. There he settled down at Enkoji Temple in Banshu, where he taught the head monk’s (one Tada Hanzaburo’s) brother. Hanzaburo’s grandson would found the Ensu-ryū based on the Enmei-ryū teachings and iaijutsu.

From 1605 to 1612 he travelled extensively all over Japan in Musha Shugyo, a warrior pilgrimage during which he honed his skills with duels. He was said to have used bokken or bokuto in actual duels. Most of the engagements from these times did not try to take the opponent’s life unless both agreed, but in most duels it is known that Musashi did not care which weapon the other was using – such was his mastery of the way of strategy.

On 5 September 1607, a document purports to be a transmission by Miyamoto Munisai of his teachings, suggesting Munisai lived at least to this date. In this year, Musashi departed Nara for Edo, during which he fought (and killed) a kusarigama practitioner named Shishido Baiken. In Edo, Musashi defeated Muso Gonnosuke, who would found an influential staff-wielding school known as Shinto Muso Ryu.

Musashi is said to have fought over 60 duels and was never defeated, although this is a conservative estimate, most likely not accounting deaths by his hand in major battles. Japanese historians seem to believe that he could not have won all of them alone, without some assistance from his students.^{[citation needed]}

In 1611, Musashi began practicing zazen at the Myoshinji Temple, where he met Nagaoka Sado, vassal to Lord Hosokawa Tadaoki; Tadaoki was a powerful lord who had received the fief of Higo in west-central Kyūshū after the Battle of Sekigahara. Munisai had moved to northern Kyūshū and became Tadaoki’s teacher, leading to the possibility that Munisai introduced the two. Nagaoka proposed a duel with a certain adept named Sasaki Kojirō. Tokitsu believes that the duel was politically motivated, a matter of consolidating Tadaoki’s control over his fief.

Duel with Sasaki Kojirō

Main article: Sasaki Kojirō

In April 13, 1612, Musashi (aged approximately 30) had his most famous duel with Sasaki Kojirō who wielded a nodachi. Musashi came late and unkempt to the appointed place — the remote island of Funajima, north of Kokura. The duel was short and Musashi killed his opponent with a bokken that he had carved from an oar while traveling to the island. Musashi designed it to be longer than the nodachi, making it closer to a modern suburito.

Musashi’s late arrival is controversial. Sasaki’s outraged supporters thought it was dishonorable and disrespectful while many others thought it was a fair way to unnerve his opponent. Another theory is that Musashi timed the hour of his arrival to match the turning of the tide. The tide carried him to the island then it turned by the time the fight ended. After his victory, Musashi immediately jumped back in his boat and his flight from Sasaki’s vengeful allies was thus helped by the turning tide. He briefly established a fencing school that same year.

Service

In 1614–1615 Musashi participated in the war between the Toyotomi and the Tokugawa. The war had broken out because Tokugawa Ieyasu saw the Toyotomi family as a threat to his rule of Japan; most scholars believe that as in the previous war, Musashi fought on the Toyotomi side. Osaka Castle was the central place of battle. The first battle (the Winter Battle of Osaka; Musashi’s fourth battle) ended in a truce, and the second one (the Summer Battle of Osaka; Musashi’s fifth battle) resulted in the total defeat of Toyotomi Hideyori’s Army of the West by Ieyasu’s Army of the East in May 1615. Some reports go so far as to say that Musashi entered a duel with Ieyasu, but was recruited after Ieyasu sensed his defeat was at hand. This seems unlikely, however, and it remains unknown how Musashi came into Ieyasu’s good graces.

Other accounts claim he actually served on the Tokugawa side, but such a claim is unproven, although Musashi had a close relationship with some Tokugawa vassals through his duel with Sasaki Kojirō, and in the succeeding years, he did not drop out of sight as might be expected if he were being persecuted for being on the losing side. In his later years, Lords Ogasawara and Hosokawa supported Musashi greatly—an atypical course of action for these Tokugawa loyalists, if Musashi had indeed fought on behalf of the Toyotomis.

In 1615 he entered the service of Lord Ogasawara Tadanao (小笠原忠直) of Harima Province, at Ogasawara’s invitation, as a foreman or “Construction Supervisor,” after previously gaining skills in craft. He helped construct Akashi Castle and to lay out the organization of the town of Himeji (this last in 1621). He also taught martial arts during his stay, specializing in instruction in the art of shuriken-throwing. During this period of service, he adopted a son.

In 1621, Musashi defeated Miyake Gunbei and three other adepts of the Togun ryu in front of the lord of Himeji; it was after this victory that he helped plan Himeji. Around this time, Musashi developed a number of disciples for his Enmei-ryū although he had developed the school considerably earlier; at the age of 22, Musashi had already written a scroll of Enmei-ryū teachings called “Writings on the Sword Technique of the Enmei-ryū” (Enmei-ryū kenpo sho). 円/”En” meant “circle” or “perfection”; 明/”mei” meant “light”/”clarity”, and 流/”ryū” meant “school”; the name seems to have been derived from the idea of holding the two swords up in the light so as to form a circle. The school’s central idea is given as training to use the twin swords of the samurai as effectively as a pair of sword and jitte.

In 1622, Musashi’s adoptive son, named Miyamoto Mikinosuke became a vassal to the fief of Himeji. Possibly this prompted Musashi to leave, embarking on a new series of travels, winding up in Edo in 1623, where he became friends with the Confucian scholar Hayashi Razan, who was one of the shogun’s advisors. Musashi applied to become a swordmaster to the Shogun, but as he already had two swordmasters (Ono Jiroemon Tadaaki and Yagyu Munenori – the latter also a political advisor to the Shogun, in addition to his position as the head of the Shogunate’s secret police), his application was denied. Musashi left Edo in the direction of Ōshū, ending up in Yamagata, where he adopted a second son, Miyamoto Iori. The two then travelled, eventually stopping in Osaka.

In 1626, Miyamoto Mikinosuke, following the custom of junshi, committed seppuku because of the death of his lord. In this year, Miyamoto Iori entered Lord Ogasawara’s service. Musashi’s attempt to become a vassal to the Lord of Owari, like other such attempts, failed.

In 1627, Musashi began to travel again. In 1634 he settled in Kokura with Iori, and later entered the service of daimyo Ogasawara Tadazane, taking a major role in the Shimabara Rebellion. Iori served with excellence in putting down the rebellion and gradually rose to the rank of karo—a position equal to a minister. Musashi, however was reputedly injured by a thrown rock while scouting in the front line, and was thus unable to accrue any form of merit.

Later life and death

Six years later, in 1633, Musashi began staying with Hosokawa Tadatoshi, daimyo of Kumamoto Castle, who had moved to the Kumamoto fief and Kokura, to train and paint. Ironically, it was at this time that the Hosokawa lords were also the patrons of Musashi’s chief rival, Sasaki Kojirō. While there he engaged in very few duels; one would occur in 1634 at the arrangement of Lord Ogasawara, in which Musashi defeated a lance specialist by the name of Takada Matabei. Musashi would officially become the retainer of the Hosokowa lords of Kumamoto in 1640. The Niten Ki records “[he] received from Lord Tadatoshi: 17 retainers, a stipend of 300 koku, the rank of ōkumigashira 大組頭, and Chiba Castle in Kumamoto as his residence.”^[11]

In the second month of 1641, Musashi wrote a work called the Hyoho Sanju Go (”Thirty-five Instructions on Strategy”) for Hosokawa Tadatoshi; this work overlapped and formed the basis for the later Go Rin No Sho. This was the year that his third son, Hirao Yoemon, became Master of Arms for the Owari fief. In 1642, Musashi suffered attacks of neuralgia, foreshadowing his future ill-health. In 1643 he retired to a cave named Reigandō as a hermit to write The Book of Five Rings. He finished it in the second month of 1645. On the twelfth of the fifth month, sensing his impending death, Musashi bequeathed his worldly possessions, after giving his manuscript copy of the Go Rin No Sho to his closest disciple (Terao Magonojo)’s younger brother. He died in Reigandō cave around the nineteenth of the fifth month, or possibly June 13, 1645. The Hyoho senshi denki described his passing:

“At the moment of his death, he had himself raised up. He had his belt tightened and his wakizashi put in it. He seated himself with one knee vertically raised, holding the sword with his left hand and a cane in his right hand. He died in this posture, at the age of sixty-two. The principal vassals of Lord Hosokawa and the other officers gathered, and they painstakingly carried out the ceremony. Then they set up a tomb on Mount Iwato on the order of the lord.”

It is notable that Musashi died of what is believed to be thoracic cancer, and was not killed in combat. He died peacefully after finishing the Dokkodo (”The Way of Walking Alone”, or “The Way of Self-Reliance”), 21 precepts on self-discipline to guide future generations.

His body was interred in armor within the village of Yuge, near the main road near Mount Iwato, facing the direction the Hosokawas would travel to Edo; his hair was buried on Mount Iwato itself.

Nine years later, a major source about his life — a monument with a funereal eulogy to Musashi — was erected in Kokura by Miyamoto Iori; this monument was called the Kokura hibun. An account of Musashi’s life, the Niten-ki 二天記, was published in Kumamoto in 1776, by Toyota Kagehide, based on the recollections of his grandfather Toyota Masataka, who was a second generation pupil of Musashi.

Teachings

Musashi created and perfected a two-sword kenjutsu technique called niten’ichi (二天一, “two heavens as one”) or nitōichi (二刀一, “two swords as one”) or “Ni-Ten Ichi Ryu” (A Kongen Buddhist Sutra refers to the two heavens as the two guardians of Buddha). In this technique, the swordsman uses both a large sword, and a “companion sword” at the same time, such as a katana and wakizashi.

It is said the two-handed movements of temple drummers inspired him, although it seems more likely that the technique was forged by a means of natural selection through Musashi’s combat experience, or from jitte techniques which were taught to him by his father- the jitte was often used in battle paired with a sword; the jitte would parry and neutralize the weapon of the enemy whilst the sword struck or the practitioner grappled with the enemy. In his time a long sword in the left hand was referred to as gyaku nito. Today Musashi’s style of swordsmanship is known as Hyōhō Niten Ichi-ryū.

Musashi was also an expert in throwing weapons. He frequently threw his short sword, and Kenji Tokitsu believes that shuriken methods for the wakizashi were the Niten Ichi Ryu’s secret techniques. (see Hayakutake-Watkin: [1])

Musashi was a loner. He spent many years studying Buddhism and swordsmanship. He was an accomplished artist, sculptor, and calligrapher. Records also show that he had architectural skills. Also, he had a rather straightforward approach to combat, with no additional frills or aesthetic considerations. This was probably due to his real-life combat experience.

Especially in his later life Musashi also followed the more artistic side of bushido. He made various Zen brush paintings and calligraphy and sculpted wood and metal. Even in The Book of Five Rings he emphasizes that samurai should understand other professions as well. It should be understood that Musashi’s writings were very ambiguous. Translating them into English makes them even more so. That is why we find so many copies of Gorin no Sho. One needs to read this work, Dokkodo and Hyoho Shiji ni Kajo to get a better idea of what he was about and understand his transformation from Setsuninto (the sword that takes life) to Katsujinken (the sword that gives life).

Legends

After his death, various legends began to appear. Most talk about his feats in kenjutsu and other martial arts, some describing how he was able to hurl men over 5 feet backwards, other about his speed and technique. Other legends tell of how Musashi killed giant lizards in Echizen, as well as Nue in various other provinces. He gained the stature of Kensei, or “sword saint” for his mastery in swordsmanship. Some even believed he could run at super-human speed, walk on air, water and fly through the clouds.

Philosophy

Throughout Musashi’s last book, The Book of Five Rings (五輪書, Go Rin no Sho^?), Musashi seems to take a very philosophical approach to looking at the “Craft of War”; “There are four Ways in which men pass through life: as Gentlemen Warriors, Farmers, Artisans and Merchants.” these falling into one of the few profession groups that could be observed in Musashi’s time.

Throughout the book, Musashi implies that the way of the Warrior, as well as the meaning of a “True strategist” is that of somebody who has made mastery of many art forms away from that of the sword, such as tea drinking (sado), laboring, writing, and painting as Musashi practiced throughout his life. Musashi was hailed as an extraordinary sumi-e artist in the use of ink monochrome as depicted in two such famous paintings: “Shrike Perched in a Dead Tree” (Koboku Meigekizu, 枯木鳴鵙図) and “Wild Geese Among Reeds” (Rozanzu, 魯山図). Going back to the Book of Five Rings, Musashi talks deeply about the ways of Buddhism.

He makes particular note of Artisans and Foremen. In the time in which he writes the book, the majority of houses in Japan were made of wood. In the use of building a house, foremen have to employ strategy based upon the skill and ability of their workers.

In comparison to warriors and soldiers, Musashi notes the ways in which the artisans thrive through events; the ruin of houses, the splendor of houses, the style of the house, the tradition and name or origins of a house. These too, are similar to the events which are seen to have warriors and soldiers thrive; the rise and fall of prefectures, countries and other such events are what make uses for Warriors, as well as the literal comparisons of the: “The carpenter uses a master plan of the building, and the Way of strategy is similar in that there is a plan of campaign“.

The way of strategy

Throughout the book, Go Rin No Sho, the idea which Musashi pushes is that the “way of the strategist” (Heihō 兵法) is similar to how a carpenter and his tools are mutually inclusive, e.g. – A carpenter can do nothing without his tools, and vice versa. This too, he compares to skill, and tactical ability in the field of battle.

Initially, Musashi notes that throughout China and Japan, there are many “sword fencers” who walk around claiming they are Strategists, but are in fact, not – this may be due to the fact that Musashi had defeated some such Strategists, such as Arima Kihei.

The idea is that by reading his writings, one can become a true strategist from ability and tactical skill that Musashi had learned in his lifetime. He pushes that Strategy and Virtue are something which can be earned by knowing the ways of life, the professions that are around, to perhaps learn the skills and knowledge of people and the skills of their particular professions.

However, Musashi seems to state that the value of Strategy seems to be homogeneous. He notes that:

The attendants of the Kashima Kantori shrines of the province Hitachi received instruction from the gods, and made schools based on this teaching, travelling from province to province instructing men. This is the recent meaning of strategy.

As well as noting that Strategy is destined to die;

Of course, men who study in this way think they are training the body and spirit, but it is an obstacle to the true Way, and its bad influence remains for ever. Thus the true Way of strategy is becoming decadent and dying out.

As a form, strategy was said to be one of “Ten Abilities and Seven Arts” that a Warrior should have, but Musashi disagrees that one person can gain Strategy by being confined to one particular style, which seems particularly fitting as he admits ” I practice many arts and abilities – all things with no teacher” – this perhaps being one of the reasons he was so highly regarded a swordsman.

Musashi’s metaphor for Strategy is that of the Bulb and the flower, similar to western philosophy of “The chicken or the egg“, the “bulb” being the student, the “flower” being the technique. He also notes that most places seem to be mostly concerned with their technique and its beauty. Musashi writes, “In this kind of Way of strategy, both those teaching and those learning the way are concerned with coloring and showing off their technique, trying to hasten the bloom of the flower” (as opposed to the actual harmony between strategy and Skill.)

With those who are concerned with becoming masters of strategy, Musashi points out that as a carpenter becomes better with his tools and is able to craft things with more expert measure, so too can a warrior, or strategist become more skilled in his technique. However, just as a carpenter needs to be able to use his tools according to plans, so too must a strategist be able to adapt his style or technique to the required strategy of the battle he is currently engaged in.

This description also draws parallels between the weapons of a trooper (or soldier) and the tools of a carpenter; the idea of “the right tool for the right job” seems to be implied a lot throughout the book, Go Rin No Sho. Musashi also puts into motion the idea that when a Carpenter is skilled enough in aspects of his job, and creates them with expert measure, then he can become a foreman.

Although it is not expressly mentioned, it may be seen that Musashi indicated that when you have learned the areas in which your craft requires, be it carpentry, farming, fine art or battle, and are able to apply them to any given situation, then you will be experienced enough to show others the wisdom of your ways, be it as a foreman of craftsmen, or as a general of an army.

From further reading into the book, the idea of “Weapons within strategy,” as well as Musashi referring to the power of the Writer, may seem that the Strategy which Musashi refers to does not exclusively reside within the domain of weaponry and duels, but within the realm of war and battles with many men:

Just as one man can beat ten, so a hundred men can beat a thousand, and a thousand can beat ten thousand. In my strategy, one man is the same as ten thousand, so this strategy is the complete warrior’s craft.

Of Ni-Ten Ichi Ryu

Within the book, Musashi mentions that the use of Two swords within strategy is mutually beneficial between those who utilise this skill. The idea of using two hands for a sword is an idea which Musashi disagrees with, in that there is not fluidity in movement when using two hands – “If you hold a sword with both hands, it is difficult to wield it freely to left and right, so my method is to carry the sword in one hand“, as well as the idea of using a sword with two hands on a horse, and/or riding on unstable terrain, such as muddy swamps, rice fields, or within crowds of people.

In order to learn the strategy of Ni-Ten Ichi Ryu, Musashi employs that by training with two long swords, one in each hand, you will be able to overcome the cumbersome nature of using a sword in both hands. Although difficult, Musashi agrees that there are times in which the Longsword must be used with two hands, but if your skill is good enough, you should not need it. The idea of using two long swords is that you are starting with something to which you are unaccustomed, and that you will find difficult, but will adapt to after much use.

After using two long swords proficiently enough, Musashi then states that your mastery of a Longsword, and a “Companion Sword”, most likely a wakizashi, will be much increased – “When you become used to wielding the long sword, you will gain the power of the Way and wield the sword well.“.

In short, it could be seen that from the excerpts from Go Rin No Sho, the real strategy behind Ni-Ten No Ichi Ryu, is that there is no real iron-clad method, path, or type of weaponry that is specific to the style of Ni-Ten No Ichi Ryu:

You can win with a long weapon, and yet you can also win with a short weapon. In short, the Way of the Ichi school is the spirit of winning, whatever the weapon and whatever its size.

Of the long sword

The strategy of the long sword is different than other strategies, in that it is much more straightforward. In the strategy of the longsword, it seems that Musashi’s ideal was, that by mastering gripping the sword with two fingers, it could become a platform used for moving onto the mastery of Ni-Ten Ichi Ryu, as well as being able to use two broadswords, or more masterfully use a companion sword.

However, just because the grip is to be light, it does not mean that the attack or slash from the sword will be weak. Like with any other technique in the Ni-Ten Ichi Ryu, he notes:

“If you try to wield the long sword quickly you will mistake the Way. To wield the long sword well you must wield it calmly. If you try to wield it quickly, like a folding fan or a short sword, you will err by using “short sword chopping”. You cannot cut down a man with a long sword using this method.”

Like with most disciplines in martial arts, Musashi notes that the movement of the sword after the cut is made must not be superfluous; instead of quickly returning to a stance or position, one should allow the sword to come to the end of its path from the force used. In this manner, the technique will become freely flowing, as opposed to abrupt.

Musashi also discouraged the use of only one sword for fighting, and the use of over-large swords like nodachi due to the fact that they were cumbersome and unwieldy.

Religion

Even from an early age, Musashi separated his religion from his involvement in swordsmanship. Excerpts such as the one below, from The Book of Five Rings, demonstrate a philosophy that is thought to have stayed with him throughout his life:

“There are many ways: Confucianism, Buddhism, the ways of elegance, rice-planting, or dance; these things are not to be found in the Way of the Warrior.”^[12]

However, the belief that Musashi disliked Shinto is inaccurate, as he criticises the Shintō-ryū style of swordsmanship, and not Shinto, the religion. In Musashi’s Dokkodo, his stance on religion is further elucidated: “Respect Buddha and the gods without counting on their help.”. ^[13]

Musashi as an artist

In his later years, Musashi claimed in his Go Rin No Sho that “When I apply the principle of strategy to the ways of different arts and crafts, I no longer have need for a teacher in any domain.” He proved this by creating recognized masterpieces of calligraphy and classic ink painting. His paintings are characterized by skilled use of ink washes and an economy of brush stroke. He especially mastered the “broken ink” school of landscapes, applying it to other subjects, such as his “Koboku meikakuzu” (”Kingfisher Perched on a Withered Branch”; part of a triptych whose other two members were “Hotei Walking” and “Sparrow on Bamboo”), his “Hotei Watching a Cockfight”, and his “Rozanzu” (”Wild Geese Among Reeds”).

Partial bibliography

1. The 35 Articles of Swordsmanship
2. Dokkodo (The Path of Self-Reliance)
3. Go Rin No Sho (The Book of Five Rings; a reference to the Five Rings of Zen Buddhism)

Lore

• It has also been said that Musashi used nothing but a wakizashi and a katana. This is untrue; one of Musashi’s signature peculiarities was that he would prefer a wooden sword (bokken) over a katana in duels. In fact, in the Earth chapter of the Book of Five Rings he talks much about how the warrior should not have a favorite weapon, the true way is to be acquainted with all weapons.
• Rumours stated that Musashi never bathed, for fear of being caught without his swords. Since he was a frequent visitor in the courts of nobles, and the dojos of renowned masters, this is unlikely. These rumors were reinforced due to inclusion in the introduction to Victor Harris’s translation of Gorin no Sho.^[14]
• It has been suggested by some historians that Musashi created the two swords style after seeing a European duel in the Nagasaki area. European swordsmanship at the time would have used a long sword with a short one – side-swords and daggers. From certain documents, however, it seems that he naturally pulled out his wakizashi during a duel because he felt he needed it. He won and after the fight he began to refine his technique.^{[citation needed]}

Musashi in Modern Culture

There have been thirty-six films made about Musashi, including six with the title of Miyamoto Musashi. One of these, released in the English-speaking world as Samurai I: Musashi Miyamoto, is the Academy Award-winning film by Hiroshi Inagaki starring Toshirô Mifune. There was a television series about his life. Even in Musashi’s time there were fictional texts resembling comic books. It is therefore quite difficult to separate fact from fiction when discussing Musashi. Eiji Yoshikawa’s novelization has greatly influenced successive fictional depictions (including the ongoing manga Vagabond, by Takehiko Inoue, which is directly based on Yoshikawa’s novel) and is often mistaken for a factual account of Musashi’s life. The character Kyuzo in Seven Samurai by Akira Kurosawa is said (in a documentary accompanying the DVD of the movie) to “resemble” Musashi. In the recently made anime Samurai Champloo’s session 21, the character Jin is helped by a character who hints at being Musashi. Despite the fact that he teaches Jin a great lesson of dueling, the man is a happy-go-lucky character which leaves his true identity questionable.

Max Manus DSO, MC (born December 9, 1914 in Bergen, died September 20, 1996) was a Norwegian resistance fighter during World War II.

After fighting as a volunteer in the Soviet-Finnish Winter War of 1939/1940, he returned to Norway on the day of the German invasion of Norway on April 9, 1940. He was one of the pioneers in the Norwegian resistance movement, and was arrested by the Gestapo in 1941. He escaped to England for training and went back as a saboteur in the Norwegian Independent Company 1. He became a specialist in ship sabotage and sank ships that were important for the German Kriegsmarine using limpet mines, including the Monte Rosa in 1944 and the Donau on January 16, 1945. Max Manus eventually rose to the rank of lieutenant.

He was famous for being one of the most brilliant saboteurs during World War II, and after the war he wrote several books about his adventures. After the war, he started the successful office supply company Max Manus AS.

He was awarded the War Cross with two swords, the highest Norwegian medal for bravery (only Gunnar Sønsteby was awarded the version with three swords), as well as the British Military Cross with bar.

He lived in Spain for the last years of his life and died in 1996.

His autobiographical accounts

Two books were written by Max Manus shortly after the 2nd WW. The first, Det vil helst gå godt – 1945 (i.e. ‘It Tends To Go Well’) describes some of his enterprising and event-filled wandering and working in the jungles of South America and in Latin America. He returned to Scandinavia before the outbreak of World War II, upon which he soon joined up with the Norwegian Army and went to fight in a volunteer detachment with the Finns against the Russian invaders of their land.

After the debacle in Finland, Max Manus returned to Norway and was there when the Nazis occupied on April 9th, 1940. He fought during the Norwegian campaign, whereupon he decided to return to Oslo and work underground against the occupiers, both organising a resistance movement, illegal public propaganda and the manufacture of weaponry. He and his comrades nearly managed to assassinate Himmler and Goebbels when they visited Oslo. His work was nonetheless so effective that he became a much wanted man by the Gestapo, and he was eventually captured by them, receiving injuries as he tried to escape. He had to be treated in the main Oslo hospital. The doctor at the hospital gave the Gestapo officer a false explanation and said Max Manus needed treatment for a broken back, damaged shoulder and serious concussion. The truth was different – he was only bruised and had a light concussion. With the aid of his patriotic nurse, he managed after 27 days on his back to escape through a second-floor window with a rope. In a dramatic flight he went to Sweden. By then, Russia had entered the war against Nazi Germany, so Manus travelled through Russia, via Turkey, Arabia, by ship via Capetown to the U.S., all to eventually be able to return to the fight in Europe.

He reconnected with the Norwegian military in the US and went on to further training in Canada and later crossed the Atlantic again to Belfast, then England. Here and in Scotland he trained further and developed professional skills at sabotage and undercover work of many kinds. He was then required to learn parachuting and was dropped in the forests near Oslo with a sabotage team. In Norway he resumed his organisational work and made various sabotage attempts on ships in Oslofjord with home-designed limpet mines and even ‘swimmer-assisted torpedoes’. The former were the more successful than the latter, sinking and damaging some vessels. It was a long but intense learning process of great practical difficulty and hazard. He made numerous hazardous trips back and forth across the border to Sweden, where he was able to get a respite from the constant mental and physical pressures of being undercover. Many of his comrades in arms were killed, captured and tortured, but Manus managed to survive through a combination of determination not to be taken and some very lucky narrow escapes.

Max Manus’ second book was ‘Det Blir Alvor’ (i.e. ‘It Gets Serious’), in which he continues the saga of his resistance work and his great successes in sinking in 1945 two large vessels of great importance to the German war machine. When peace was declared, Max Manus found himself to be chosen to sit as a ‘living target’ beside the then Crown Prince of Norway on his triumphal parade in Oslo, and then also with King Haakon VII. This was really an honour too, and he was lauded as one of Norway’s most resilient and successful fighters, aged only 29 at the time.

In December 2007 it was announced that a movie about the life of Max Manus is to be made in Norway, starring Aksel Hennie in the leading role. No release date has yet been announced.

Hans-Ulrich Rudel (July 2, 1916 – December 18, 1982) was a Stuka dive-bomber pilot during World War II. Rudel is famous for being the most highly decorated German serviceman of the war (Hermann Göring was nominally more highly decorated, but he did not achieve his Grand Cross of the Iron Cross by combat action). Hans-Ulrich Rudel was the only person to be awarded the Knight’s Cross with Golden Oak Leaves, Swords, and Diamonds.

Rudel flew 2,530 combat missions and successfully attacked many tanks, trains, ships, and other ground targets, claiming a total of 2,000 targets destroyed – including 800 vehicles, 519 tanks, 150 artillery guns, a destroyer, two cruisers, and a battleship. Russian records however confirm neither cruiser sinking; smaller warships may have been the actual targets. He also shot down 9 aircraft.

Biography

Rudel, the son of Lutheran minister Johannes, was born in Konradswaldau (Silesia), Germany (it became part of Poland after 1945). He was raised in a number of different Silesian parishes. A poor scholar but very keen sportsman, after the Abitur (certificate of education), he joined the Luftwaffe in August 1936 as an officer cadet, and began basic training at the “School of Air Warfare” at Wildpark-Werder. He hoped to gain a posting to a fighter unit but believing a rumor and following a speech by Göring he volunteered for Stukas.

In June 1938 he joined I./Stuka-Geschwader 168 in Graz as an officer senior cadet. Rudel has difficulty learning the new techniques and, with the rest of the unit already fully trained, he was marked as unsuitable as a combat pilot and was transferred for special training in operational reconnaissance at the Reconnaissance Flying School at Hildesheim on 1 January 1939 and promoted to Leutnant on that date. After completing training he was posted to Fernaufklärungsgruppe 121 (Distance Reconnaissance Squadron) at Prenzlau.

As World War Two started and during the Polish Campaign he flew long-range reconnaissance missions over Poland from Breslau. Rudel earned the Iron Cross Second Class on October 11, 1939. After a number of requests he was reassigned to dive bombing, joining an Aviation Training Regiment at Crailsheim and then he was assigned to his previous unit, I./StG 3, at Caen in May 1940. He spent the Battle of Britain as an Oberleutnant in a non-combat role. Still regarded as a poor pilot he was returned to a Reserve Flight at Graz for further training and was there confirmed for dive bombing training. Assigned to I./StG 2, based at Molai, his poor reputation preceded him and he also spent the invasion of Crete in a non-combat role.

Combat duty during World War II

Rudel flew his first four combat missions on June 23, 1941, during the German invasion of the Soviet Union. His piloting skills earned him the Iron Cross 1st Class on July 18, 1941. On September 23, 1941, he sank the Soviet battleship Marat, during an air attack on Kronstadt harbor in the Leningrad area, with a hit to the bow with a 1000 kg bomb. By the end of December, he had flown his 400th mission and in January 1942 received the Ritterkreuz. He became the first pilot in history to fly 1,000 sorties on February 10, 1943. Around this time he also started flying anti-tank operations with the ‘Kanonenvogel’, or G, version of the Ju-87, through the Battle of Kursk, and into the autumn of 1943, claiming 100 tanks destroyed.

By March 1944, he was Gruppenkommandeur (commander) of III./StG 2 and had reached 1,800 operations and claiming 202 tanks destroyed. In November 1944, he was wounded in the thigh and flew subsequent missions with his leg in a plaster cast.

On February 8, 1945, a 40mm shell hit his aircraft. He was badly wounded in the right foot and crash landed behind German lines. His life was saved by his observer Dr.med. Ernst Gadermann who stemmed the bleeding, but Rudel’s leg was amputated below the knee. He returned to operations on March 25, 1945, claiming 26 more tanks destroyed before the end of the war. Determined not to fall into Soviet hands, he led three Ju 87s and four FW 190s westward from Bohemia in a 2-hour flight and surrendered to U.S. forces on May 8, 1945, after landing at Kitzingen airfield, home to the 405th FG.

Eleven months in hospital followed. Released by the Americans, he moved to Argentina in 1948.

Achievements

According to official Luftwaffe figures, Rudel flew some 2,530 combat missions (a world record), during which he destroyed almost 2,000 ground targets (among them 519 tanks, 70 assault craft/landing boats, 150 self-propelled guns, 4 armored trains, and 800 other vehicles; as well as 9 planes (2 Il-2’s and 7 fighters). He also sank a battleship, two cruisers and a destroyer. He was shot down or forced to land 32 times (several times behind enemy lines), but always managed to escape capture despite a 100,000 ruble bounty placed on his head by Stalin himself. He was also wounded five times and rescued six stranded aircrew from enemy territory. The vast majority of his missions were spent piloting the various models of the Junkers Ju 87, though by the end of the war he flew the ground-attack variant of the Fw 190.

He went on to become the most decorated serviceman of all the fighting arms of the German armed forces (the only person to become more highly decorated was Hermann Göring who was awarded the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross), earning by early 1945 the Wound Badge in Gold, the German Cross in Gold, the Pilots and Observer’s Badge with Diamonds, the Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe with 2,000 sorties in Diamonds, and the only holder of the Knight’s Cross of the Iron Cross with Golden Oak Leaves, Swords, and Diamonds (the highest ace of World War II Erich Hartmann also held the Knight’s Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords, and Diamonds — but not in gold). He was also promoted to Oberst at this time. He was the only foreigner to be honored with Hungary’s highest decoration, the Golden Medal for Bravery.

Awards

• Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe in Gold and Diamonds with Pennant “2.000″
• Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe
• Wound Badge in Gold
• Pilot and Observer Badge in Gold with Diamonds
• German Cross in Gold (2 December 1941)
• Iron Cross 2nd and 1st Class
• Knight’s Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds
  • Knight’s Cross (6 January 1941)
  • 229. Oak Leaves (14 April 1943)
  • 42. Swords (25 November 1943)
  • 10. Diamonds (29 March 1944)
  • 1. Golden Oak Leaves (29 December 1944)
• Hungarian Gold Medal of Bravery

After the war

After the war, Rudel became a close friend and confidante of the Argentine president Juan Perón. Rudel wrote a book titled In Spite of Everything, and a book of memoirs called Stuka Pilot that supported the German invasion of the Soviet Union. Even without a leg, he remained an active sportsman, playing tennis, skiing, and even climbing the highest peak in the Americas, Aconcagua (6,962 meters or 22,841 feet). He also ascended the second highest volcano on Earth three times, the Llullay-Yacu in the Argentine Andes (6,739 meters or 22,109 feet). In addition, Rudel’s input was used during the development of the A-10 ground attack aircraft.

Rudel returned to West Germany in 1953 and joined the German Reich Party. He became a successful businessman in post-war Germany. He died in Rosenheim in 1982, and was buried in Dornhausen.

In 1976 Rudel was involved in what came to be known as the Rudel Scandal. Two high ranking Bundeswehr generals, Karl Heinz Franke and Walter Krupinski, were forced into early retirement.

Rudel was a teetotaler and abstained from alcohol and tobacco. His fellow pilots coined the phrase Hans-Ulrich Rudel, er trinkt nur Sprudel (Hans Ulrich Rudel, he drinks only mineral water).

Harrison C. Summers  (July 12, 1918–August 3, 1983)was a paratrooper during World War II who fought with the 1st Battlallion, 502nd Parachute Infantry Regiment of the 101st Airborne Division on D-Day.

A staff sergeant at the time, he landed as part of the night drop during Operation Chicago early on D-Day. His unit took the town of Saint-Germain-de-Varreville, near Exit 4 off Utah Beach. He, along with about 15 men, was ordered to take a group of buildings nearby marked “WXYZ” on the map. The buildings turned out to be the barracks for 100 or more German troops.

Summers led the attack, charging inside with his Thompson submachine gun. He assumed the others would follow, but they did not. He proceeded on, almost single-handedly, through each of the buildings, cleaning them out. Five hours later, the position was clear, and he was credited with over 30 kills.

For his efforts that day, Summers was later nominated for the Medal of Honor, but was given the Distinguished Service Cross instead. He also received a field promotion to lieutenant.

WWII historian Stephen Ambrose described him this way: “Summers is a legend with American paratroopers …, the Sergeant York of World War II. His story has too much John Wayne/Hollywood in it to be believed, except that more than 10 men saw and reported his exploits.”

In civilian life, Summers worked in the coal mines in Rivesville, West Virginia.

James Allan was the son of a British businessman, after his father’s death he quickly squandered his inheritance gambling and partying in France.
In his autobiographical book “Under the Dragon Flag: My Experiences in the Chino-Japanese War” which you can read online in it’s entirety at the project Gutenberg website he describes how when he ran out of money he became a sailor through a chance encounter and joined up on a ship that was running guns to the Chinese forces in preparation with their conflict with the newly modernized Japanese empire.

After a skirmish with a patrolling japanese destroyer and witnessing the naval battle between the Chinese and Japanese forces from afar, Allan was accidentally stranded in Port Arthur when his ship left without him. Attempting to join his companions, he was captured by a Japanese warship, which detained him on suspicion of being a military instructor. After several weeks on board he took a chance and jumped overboard and managed to escape to Port Arthur which was by then under siege by the Japanese forces.

From his experience as a prisoner of the Japanese, Allan was sure the inevitable takeover of the city would be civilized and peaceful once the garrison had been defeated, but he underestimated the fury of the Japanese at the Chinese policy of torturing and executing all prisoners, and when the city quickly fell an indiscriminate massacre began to take place.

I directed my retreat towards the dockyards, with a view to getting round to the south part of the town, as far as possible from the quarter by which the Japanese were entering it. The idea of a general massacre never entered my mind, and I only thought of getting back to my inn, there to stay until things quieted down. My prevailing feeling was one of satisfaction that I should not after all have to face a long residence in a beleaguered town. I therefore paid little attention at first to the fact that people were flying on every hand, and I did not suppose that there could be any good reason for flight, beyond the desirability of getting out of the way of the conquering troops until the ardour of victory had cooled down. I was not long to be left undeceived. A deadly work of vengeance and slaughter had commenced Down the panic-crowded streets, louder and louder as I advanced, came ringing the volleys of the rifle-fire, the shouts of the infuriated soldiers, and the death-shrieks of their victims.

Escaping from the streets, he hid in a shop while being pursued by a soldier. Emerging from hiding a while later, he was surprised by the very same soldier that was pursuing him earlier. Grabbing a hatchet, Allan split the man’s head and stole his uniform, and in the waning light managed to pass for a Japanese soldier and returned to his lodgings, only to find that everyone there had been murdered with the exception of his interpreter Chung and a mandarin friend of his who was wounded.

They managed to sneak out of the city and spent several months at sea in a Junk that picked them up on the river.

Alvin Cullum York (December 13, 1887 – September 2, 1964) was a United States soldier, famous for his heroism in World War I. He was awarded the Medal of Honor for leading an attack on a German machine gun nest, killing 20 German soldiers and capturing 132 others.

From York’s Medal of Honor citation:

“

The Argonne Forest, France, 8 October 1918. After his platoon suffered heavy casualties, Alvin York assumed command. Fearlessly leading 7 men, he charged with great daring a machine gun nest which was pouring deadly and incessant fire upon his platoon. In this heroic feat the machine gun nest was taken, together with 4 German officers and 128 men and several guns.

”

Contents

Early life

York was born in Pall Mall, Tennessee in the Valley of the Three Forks of the Wolf, the third of eleven children born to William York and Mary Elizabeth York, née Brooks. As was typical of the area and times, his family subsisted by farming and hunting. As a result, young Alvin became an expert marksman in the area woods. When Alvin’s father died in 1911, he rejected Christianity. As he stated in his diary “I got in bad company and I broke off from my mother’s and father’s advice and got to drinking and gambling and playing up right smart…I used to drink a lot of Moonshine. I used to gamble my wages away week after week. I used to stay out late at nights. I had a powerful lot of fistfights.”

In 1914, a friend of Alvin’s was caught in a bar fight where he was killed. He then devoted his time to change his ways. On 1 January 1915, Alvin attended a revival meeting conducted by Reverend H.H. Russell. During the sermon, York felt as if lightning hit his soul and was moved to accept Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior. From this point his life was forever changed and he immediately abandoned “smoking, drinking, gambling, cussing and brawling.” York took this commitment seriously, grew in his faith, taught Sunday school, led the choir and eventually became an elder in his church. York’s old friends tried to persuade him to go drinking, but he continually refused.

According to popular folklore,York filed as a conscientious objector at the start of World War I. However, according to York’s diary, his mother and his pastor filed the application for conscientious objector status on his behalf, but he refused to sign them. As York states in his diary, “I never asked for exemption from service on any grounds at all. I never was a conscientious objector. I am not today. I didn’t want to go and fight and kill. But I had to answer the call of my country, and I did. And I believed it was right.” ^[1] However, on his World War I draft registration card — which was signed — the answer to whether or not he claiimed any exemption was “Yes. Don’t want to fight.”^[2]

World War I

York eventually was drafted into the United States Army and assigned to the 82nd Infantry Division in 1917.

When York received his draft notice, he wanted to serve his country, but, as a new Christian, he hesitated to join the Army because the violence of war troubled him. After spending two days in prayer on a mountain near his home, however, York told his family, “I’m going” and enlisted in the Army.

As a corporal in the 2nd battalion, 328th Infantry, in the Battle of Meuse River-Argonne Forest on 8 October 1918, he assumed command of his detachment after three other NCOs fell. York’s battalion’s mission was to take the German Decauville Rail-line and sever it. Taking the railroad was vital since it would sever lateral support and communications behind the German lines and open the way for a broader Allied attack. The line of attack took the 328th up a funnel-shaped valley, which became narrower as they advanced. On each side and the far side of the valley were steep ridges, occupied by German machine gun emplacements and infantry troops. As the Americans advanced up the valley, it encountered intense German machine gun fires from the left and right flanks and the front. Soon, heavy artillery poured in upon the beleaguered Regiment, compelling the American attack to stall. The Americans were caught in a deadly cross-fire. As York recollected:

“The Germans got us, and they got us right smart. They just stopped us dead in our tracks. Their machine guns were up there on the heights overlooking us and well hidden, and we couldn’t tell for certain where the terrible heavy fire was coming from…And I’m telling you they were shooting straight. Our boys just went down like the long grass before the mowing machine at home. Our attack just faded out… And there we were, lying down, about halfway across [the valley] and those German machine guns and big shells getting us hard.”

The blistering German fire took a heavy toll on the regiment with the survivors seeking cover wherever they could find it. Something had to be done to silence the German machine guns. Sergeant Bernard Early was ordered to take three squads of men (which included York’s squad) to get behind the German entrenchments to take out the machine guns. They successfully worked their way behind the German positions and quickly overran the headquarters of a German unit, capturing a large group of German soldiers who were preparing to counter-attack against the US troops.

Early’s men were contending with the prisoners when machine gun fire suddenly peppered the area, killing six Americans and wounding three others. The fire came from German machine guns on the ridge, which turned their weapons on the US soldiers. The loss of the nine put Corporal York in charge of the eight remaining US soldiers. As his men remained under cover, and guarding the prisoners, York worked his way into position to silence the German machine guns.

“And those machine guns were spitting fire and cutting down the undergrowth all around me something awful. And the Germans were yelling orders. You never heard such a ‘racket in all of your life. I didn’t have time to dodge behind a tree or dive into the brush… As soon as the machine guns opened fire on me, I began to exchange shots with them. There were over thirty of them in continuous action, and all I could do was touch the Germans off just as fast as I could. I was sharp shooting. I don’t think I missed a shot. It was no time to miss… All the time I kept yelling at them to come down. I didn’t want to kill any more than I had to. But it was they or I. And I was giving them the best I had.” — Sergeant Alvin York

One of York’s prisoners, a First Lieutenant Vollmer, emptied his pistol trying to kill York (while York was contending with the machine guns). Failing to injure York, and seeing his mounting losses; he offered to surrender the unit to York, which was gladly accepted. By the end of the engagement, York and his seven men marched 132 German prisoners back to the American lines. His actions silenced the German machine guns and were responsible for enabling the 328th Infantry Regiment to renew the offensive to capture the Decauville Railroad.

The fact York deserves credit for his heroism is without question. York saved his battalion from destruction by his actions which resulted in the silencing of thirty-five machine guns and the capture of 132 German prisoners from the 120th and 125th Wurttemberg regiments, the 7th Bavarian Mining Company and the 210th Prussian Reserve Regiment.

The evidence supporting York’s actions is overwhelming. In October 2006, a team of military experts and researchers found all 21 of the cartridges fired by York – in the exact location where both the German and American records said the events transpired. ^[3][4]

Initially, York’s chain of command honored this accomplishment by awarding him the Distinguished Service Cross. France, whose forces he was directly aiding and whose territory was involved, added its Croix de Guerre and Legion of Honor. Italy and Montenegro, also allies, awarded him their Croce di Guerra and War Medal, respectively. The Distinguished Service Cross was upgraded to the Medal of Honor, which was presented to York by the commanding general of the American Expeditionary Force, John J. Pershing.

At the time of his heroics, York was in fact still a corporal. His promotion to sergeant was part of the honor for his valor but resulted in his becoming known to the United States (and much of the world) as “Sergeant York”.

A conversation between Sergeant York and his Division Commander, General Lindsey, in January 1919 when they toured the site where York captured 132 Germans three months earlier reveals Alvin’s thoughts about the episode:

General Lindsey: “York, how did you do it?”

Alvin York: “Sir, it is not man power. A higher power than man power guided and watched over me and told me what to do.” And the general bowed his head and put his hand on my shoulder and solemnly said”

General Lindsay: “York, you are right.”

Alvin York: “There can be no doubt in the world of the fact of the divine power being in that. No other power under heaven could bring a man out of a place like that. Men were killed on both sides of me; and I was the biggest and the most exposed of all. Over thirty machine guns were maintaining rapid fire at me, point-blank from a range of about twenty-five yards. When you have God behind you, you can come out on top every time.”